gender stratification theory

1987. Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and power over women, transgender and gender-non-conforming people. Keister and Southgate 2012 posits that gender is often seen as one dimension of stratification. “Doing gender” is the notion that masculinity and feminity are performed gender identities. However, Risman 2004 and McCall 2005 argue for an intersectional approach where gender is analyzed across all dimensions. 2004. This type of approach would appeal to the sensitive and relational characteristics typically associated with femininity. Gender stratification. Keister, Lisa A., and Darby E. Southgate. The feminist movement, which was on the rise at the same time that functionalism began to decline, takes the position that functionalism neglects the suppression of women within the family structure. Thus gender, like other social institutions, contributes to the stability of society as a whole. Fundamental to sexism is the assumption that men are superior to women. Risman suggests that an intersectional approach to studying inequalities that takes into account that individuals’ self-perceptions are nested within interactions, which themselves are nested in institutional settings. If the interaction is in danger of ending before an individual wants it to, it can be conserved through several steps. Gender, on the other hand, is a social classification based on one's identity, presentation of self, behavior, and interaction with others. In the context of gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. Feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex of relationships based on the assertion of male supremacy. Feminist theory uses the conflict approach to examine the reinforcement of gender roles and inequalities, highlighting the role of patriarchy in maintaining the oppression of women. According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. Theories of Stratification Summary Theories of Stratification. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth advantage in Conflict Theory, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and economic power). Gender Stratification. OpenStax College, Introduction to Sociology. This chapter sets forth a general theory of gender stratifica- tion. Mary Ann Weathers drew attention to the ways in which white women face a different form of discrimination than working class women of color, who additionally must fight racism and class oppression. Social interaction is a face-to-face process that consists of actions, reactions, and mutual adaptation between two or more individuals. Gender stratification can be examined at the level of individual outcomes and interactions or with a macro perspective that compares indexes of gender inequalities across countries. Other sociologists applied traditional frameworks to stratification. Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. A Female Indian Construction: While the structural-functionalist perspective argues that gender inequalities exist as a form of the division of labor, the photograph above clearly illustrates that women need not be restricted to certain activities. McCall, Leslie. All sizes | lacie 15s | Flickr - Photo Sharing!. CC licensed content, Specific attribution, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism%23Theory, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Gender%23Structural_Functionalism, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role%23Talcott_Parsons.27_view, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_prerequisites, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division%20of%20labor, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/functionalist%20perspective%20of%20gender%20inequality, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Functionalist%20Perspective, http://www.flickr.com/photos/rahul3/2245024409/sizes/m/in/photostream/, http://cnx.org/content/m42871/latest/?collection=col11407/1.2, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Gender%23Conflict_Theory, http://www.boundless.com//sociology/definition/dominant-group, http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subordinate, http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proletariat, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VictorianPostcard.jpg, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactionism, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_gender, http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/masculinity, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20H.%20Cooley, http://www.flickr.com/photos/bigmikeyeah/7206542972/sizes/m/in/photostream/, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_theory%23Intersections_of_Race.2C_Class.2C_and_Gender, http://www.boundless.com//sociology/definition/conflict-theory, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gleiche_Rechte_Gleiche_Pflichten,_social_democrat_party_poster_1919.jpg. Feminist theory analyzes gender stratification through the intersection of gender, race, and class. In most cultures, men have historically held most of the world’s resources. Feminist theory analyzes gender stratification through the intersection of gender, race, and class. “: A satirical postcard from the Victorian era commenting on a society that is structured so that women are bound by convention to fulfill certain roles and obligations. Moreover, the aspects of racial and gender inequality should be considered (Keister and Southgate 2012). This type of approach would appeal to the analytical characteristics typically associated with masculinity. Gender & Society 18:429–450. Interactionists believe that these meanings are derived through social interaction, and that these meanings are managed and transformed through an interpretive process that people use to make sense of, and handle, the objects that constitute their social worlds. Intersectionality suggests that various biological, social and cultural categories, including gender, race, class and ethnicity, interact and contribute towards systematic social inequality. Sociological Research Online 2012 17: 2, 1-17 Download Citation. September 17, 2013. Gender inequality is the idea that men and women are not equal and that gender affects an individual's living experience. Religion- Every man his/her religion, but this is also a basis of stratification … A General Theory of Gender Stratification. Macro-level mechanisms (economics, organization, politics, and culture), shape gender stratification and our perception of gender inequality. Often the terms gender inequality and gender stratification are used interchangeably. An incremental model building strategy is used to develop a final model that combines predictors linked to both industrialism theory and gender stratification theory. “Women! Some of these types of distinctions are empirically grounded while others appear to be socially constructed. Expand or collapse the "in this article" section, Indicators of Inequality at the Country Level, Expand or collapse the "related articles" section, Expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section. Radical feminism, in particular, evaluates the role of the patriarchy in perpetuating male dominance. Conflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. The functional theory of stratification: Some neglected considerations. McCall’s is an appropriate text for advanced contemporary theory seminars. Describe gender inequality from the view of the functionalist perspective. e Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). Crompton provides a summary of the conflicts between economically oriented “class” research and the “normative/cultural” approach underlying gender research. The Social Construction of Gender DOI: 10.1177/0891243287001002002E-mail Citation ». Both masculinity and feminity are performed gender identities, in the sense that gender is something we do or perform, not something we are . Age stratification brings together the deceptively elusive individual characteristic of age, and the complex and dynamic social phenomenon of stratification. Most of the research in this area focuses on differences between men’s and women’s life circumstances, broadly … American Sociological Review, 24 , 772–782. While certain gender roles may have been appropriate in a hunter-gatherer society, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power and status. Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and power over women, transgender and gender-non-conforming people. While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women’s interests. Doing gender. Therefore, various forms of oppression do not act independently but are interrelated. Blumberg’s essay is a challenging read. Social stratification inevitably leads to inequality due to division into social classes. Conflict between the two groups caused things like the Women’s Suffrage Movement and was responsible for social change. The declining significance of gender? Members of society are socially stratified on many levels, including socio-economic status, race, class, ethnicity, religion, ability status, and gender. Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and power over women, transgender, and gender-non-conforming people. One conversational partner can conform to the expectations of the other, he or she can ignore certain incidents, or he or she can solve apparent problems. Signs 30:1771–1800. 2006 points out that understanding contextual factors and their interactions with gender within organizational contexts are essential for a holistic understanding of gender stratification. Gleiche Rechte Gleiche Pflichten, social democrat party poster 1919. Although we provide examples of research noting gendered health disparities are outcomes of gender inequalities within societies, not all health research makes this connection. Feminist theory uses the conflict approach to examine the reinforcement of gender roles and inequalities, highlighting the role of patriarchy in maintaining the oppression of women. Gender stratification is the cuts across all aspects of social life and social classes. The United States is characterized by gender stratification (as well as stratification of race, income, occupation, and the like). This textbook’s review of basic theoretical and empirical approaches to stratification research can serve as a primer before students move to understand the other readings included in this entry. There are a variety of approaches to the study of gender stratification. Conflict theory posits that stratification is dysfunctional and harmful in society, with inequality perpetuated because it benefits the rich and powerful at the expense of the poor. Scholars of interactionism study how individuals act within society and believe that meaning is produced through interactions. Perhaps that will change once data regarding sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression becomes more widely available. While both biological and ideological variables are taken into account, the emphasis is structural: It is proposed that the major independent variable affecting sexual in- equality is each sex's economic power, understood as relative control over the means of production and allocation of surplus. There are a variety of approaches to the study of gender stratification. Gender stratification is a relatively new concept borne … 2003. Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on Often the terms gender inequality and gender stratification are used interchangeably. Functional prerequisites may also refer to the factors that allow a society to maintain social order. The goal of social interaction is to communicate with others. Inequality: A contemporary approach to race, class, and gender. Sociologists have argued that we live in a patriarchal society.This means … Because of this, we act and react to symbols based on their current assigned meanings. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. In response to this phenomena, the sociologist Charles H. Cooley’s developed the theory of the “looking-glass self” (1902). Agency involves the relative capacity of the individual to influence occupational outcomes; equity pertains to the perceived fairness of occupational rewards. Intersectionality suggests that various biological, social and cultural categories, including gender, race, class and ethnicity, interact and contribute towards systematic social inequality . In the context of gender, if society perceives a man as masculine, that man will consider himself as masculine. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality, and examines women’s social roles, experiences, and interests. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); The functionalist perspective of gender roles suggests that gender roles exist to maximize social efficiency. This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor, or as a social system in which a particular segment of the population is clearly responsible for certain acts of labor and another segment is clearly responsible for other labor acts. This was due to women’s dependence on men for the attainment of wages. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of reducing poverty, promoting sustainable development and building good governance”. The feminist perspective of gender stratification more recently takes into account intersectionality, a feminist sociological theory first highlighted by feminist-sociologist Kimberlé Crenshaw. The meanings attached to symbols are socially created and fluid, instead of natural and static. The complexity of intersectionality. Until relatively recently, women in Western cultures could not vote or hold property, making them entirely dependent on men. According to conflict theory, social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups. The first and second waves of the feminist movement were primarily driven by white women, who did not adequately represent the feminist movement as a whole. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements, namely: norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. The feminist movement takes the position that functionalism neglects the suppression of women within the family structure. To answer that, we’re going back to our three sociological paradigms and how each school of thought approaches gender theory. Sociological Theory 2:23–101. Imagine, for example, that you walk into a bank, hoping to get a small loan for school, a home, or a small business venture. This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and looks at both social structure and social functions. Explain gender stratification from the feminist perspective. Blau, Francine D., Mary C. Brinton, and David B. Grusky, eds. Mary Ann Weathers demonstrates intersectionality in action in “An Argument for Black Women’s Liberation as a Revolutionary Force.” In this publication, Weathers reveals that in the twentieth century, working-class women of color embodied the notion of intersectionality. Feminist theory uses the conflict approach to examine the reinforcement of gender roles and inequalities, highlighting the role of patriarchy in maintaining the oppression of women. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. While she has long hair and is wearing makeup, typically feminine markers, her clothes are much more masculine in nature. A general theory of gender stratification. In sociological research, functional prerequisites are the basic needs (food, shelter, clothing, and money) that an individual requires to live above the poverty line. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse. Frederich Engels compared the family structure to the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, suggesting that women had less power than men in the household because they were dependent on them for wages. In sociology, social stratification occurs when differences lead to greater status, power, or privilege for some groups over others. Gender Stratification In this paper, I am going to address gender stratification in relation to Marriage, Sexuality, and Reproductive health issues. Testosterone, when released in the womb, cau… Sociologists view gender as learned behavior and a culturally produced identity, and as such, it is a social category. This book illustrates the importance of and difficulty with integrating class analysis in feminist research. The functionalist perspective of gender inequality was most robustly articulated in the 1940s and 1950s, and largely developed by Talcott Parsons’ model of the nuclear family. Gender inequality in the area of education, economic resources, and family are closely linked in individuals’ lives, but distinct strands of research have emerged and will be discussed separately. Describe gender from the view of the interactionalist perspective. 1984. Stratification has always existed in our society but earlier the economic and caste barrier were considered as major reasons, but later on, female sociologists tactfully showed how gender equally plays an important role in stratifying our society. Why is gender even a thing? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. The theory was first highlighted by Kimberlé Krenshaw. Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. Factors for social stratification differ by country and the stage of the society’s development. According to Cooley’s concept of the “looking-glass self,” an individual’s understanding of their gender role is based on how society perceives them. This is not an “easy” read; rather, it is suitable for researchers seeking an understanding of different approaches for examining intersectional gender inequality. Intersectionality suggests that various forms of oppression– such as racism, classism, and sexism — are interrelated to form a system of oppression in which various forms of discrimination intersect. All essays show how macro-level mechanisms and individual outcomes are linked and need to be considered jointly. The book makes a strong argument that it is problematic, if not impossible, to examine class properly without also examining gender and race. While gender roles, according to the functionalist perspective, are beneficial in that they contribute to stable social relations, many argue that gender roles are discriminatory and should not be upheld. Thus, if society views a man as masculine, he will also perceive himself to be masculine. Acker, Joan. Confounding Expectation: The woman in this picture blurs the boundaries between the symbols that are traditionally considered masculine or feminine. In light of this theory, the oppression and marginalization of women is thus shaped not only by gender, but by other factors such as race and class. This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation and broadly focuses on the social structures that shape society as a whole. The division of labor works to maximize resources and efficiency. Therefore, various forms of oppression, such as racism or sexism, do not act independently of one another; instead these forms of oppression are interrelated, forming a system of oppression that reflects the “intersection” of multiple forms of discrimination. Scholars of this perspective study how individuals act within society, and believe that meaning is produced through the interactions of individuals. Erving Goffman, one of the forefathers of this theoretical perspective, emphasized the importance of control in social interactions. Yet a recent shift to include women more explicitly and gender more broadly has great potential to inform other areas of research on gender stratification. Blumberg 1984 argues that economic dimensions of inequality are paramount, as they precede inequalities in other domains. Stratification refers to a system in which groups of people experience unequal access to basic, yet highly valuable, social resources. Testosterone is a sex hormone, which is more present in males than females, and affects development and behavior both before and after birth. Gender theories were used in eight different ways: 1. to test hypotheses, 2. integrate theories, 3. develop gender concepts and models, 4. interpret findings, 5. understand health problems, 6. illustrate the validity of other theories, 7. integrated into a gender blind theory, as well as to 8. critique of other gender theories. It refers to the inequality distribution of wealth, power and privilege between men and women at the basis of their sex. The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It was– and continues to be– important to recognize that white women faced a different form of discrimination than working class women of color, who not only had to deal with sexism, but also fought against racism and class oppression. Friedrich Engels, a German sociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from a Marxist perspective. gender stratification system . Social stratification is common in different aspects throughout society and throughout history some of the most substantial categories affected are class, race, disabilities, sexuality and globally. This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity and femininity, because the characteristics and practices of both are socially constructed, reproduced, and reinforced through daily interactions. Most of the research in this area focuses on differences between men’s and women’s life circumstances, broadly defined. Crompton 2003 writes that a mere cultural approach to gender inequalities ignoring class is also flawed. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. Gender & Society 1:125–151. Gender stratification refers to the social ranking, where men typically inhabit higher statuses than women. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here. This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor, or as a social system in which particular segments are clearly responsible for certain, respective acts of labor. If you meet with a male loan officer, you might state your case logically, listing all of the hard numbers that make you a qualified applicant for the loan. Aaron Reeves. Researchers have been challenged to explore gender, race, and class inequalities from an intersectional perspective, rather than treating gender as independent of race and class. Class questions: Feminist answers. However, did white women face the same challenges that women of other races and ethnic groups did? West, Candace, and Don H. Zimmerman. Key Terms. “And the villain still pursues her! The present study seeks to assess the utility of gender stratification theory in accounting for cross-national differences in female life expectancy in less developed countries. Scholarly debates focus on which dimensions of inequalities are most relevant and the level at which inequalities are generated and maintained (i.e., individual, couple, family, group, or societal level). If you meet with a female loan officer, on the other hand, you might make an emotional appeal, by stating your positive social intentions. DOI: 10.1177/0891243204265349E-mail Citation ». Mass Incarceration in the United States and its Collateral... Multiracial, Mixed-Race, and Biracial Identities, Socialization, Sociological Perspectives on, Sociological Research on the Chinese Society, Sociological Research, Qualitative Methods in, Sociological Research, Quantitative Methods in, Visual Arts, Music, and Aesthetic Experience, Welfare, Race, and the American Imagination. According to structural functionalists, gender serves to maintain social order by providing and ensuring the stability of such functional prerequisites. Today we’re looking at how society becomes stratified along gender lines. Gender is something we do or perform, not something we are. 4 Summary. 2005. “: This 1919 German social democratic election poster advocates for the rights of women. In this theory, Cooley argued that an individual’s perception of himself or herself is based primarily how society views him or her. functionalist perspective of gender inequality: A theory that suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor, or a social system in which a particular segment of the population is clearly responsible for certain acts of labor and another segment is clearly responsible for other labor acts. Resources is crucial to achieving other forms of oppression do not act independently but are interrelated a,... 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